The 66 books of the Bible we hold today are the result of intense theological discussion and discernment throughout church history, ultimately established as the canon. However, before the Bible was fixed in its current form, many documents were read and debated outside the canon. These documents are generally classified as ‘Apocrypha’ or ‘Pseudepigrapha.’ Though distinct from the canon, their existence and nature deeply influenced Christian history. The Apocrypha refers to instructive writings not acknowledged as divinely inspired, while the Pseudepigrapha are texts falsely attributed to apostles or prophets. Both are ‘extra-canonical,’ yet they differ significantly in character, evaluation, and influence.
Definition and Background of the Apocrypha
The term ‘Apocrypha’ originates from the Greek apókrupha (meaning ‘hidden things’). It refers to books not included in the canon but regarded as pious literature within Judaism or the early church for long periods. Most were written between approximately 200 BCE and 100 CE and were widely read among the Jewish diaspora and Hellenistic-influenced Jewish communities. Representative books include Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), 1 and 2 Maccabees, and Baruch. Their content generally consists of religious instruction, ethical advice, national history, or prayers, often sharing stylistic and thematic similarities with canonical texts.
The primary reason these texts were excluded from the biblical canon is their absence in the Hebrew Bible. The Jewish Tanakh does not include the Apocrypha, and many lack original Hebrew manuscripts or have incomplete texts. Additionally, there is no evidence that Jesus or the apostles directly quoted or accorded authority to these writings. Nevertheless, the Apocrypha influenced the early and medieval church, and some church fathers acknowledged their spiritual value and piety.
Role and Influence of the Apocrypha
The Catholic tradition accepts some Apocryphal books as the ‘Deuterocanonical’ scriptures, formalized at the Council of Trent (1546). These texts hold equal canonical status in Catholic Bibles and serve as sources of faith and moral teaching for many Catholics. Conversely, Protestantism, particularly from Luther onward, excludes the Apocrypha from the canon but regards them as beneficial reading material, not authoritative for doctrine or worship.
While the Apocrypha do not directly contradict canonical scripture, some passages pose theological challenges to core gospel truths. For example, prayers for the dead in Maccabees may hint at purgatory, and Sirach emphasizes works-based righteousness, which can be seen as conflicting with New Testament soteriology. These concerns justify acknowledging the Apocrypha’s value while refraining from using them as doctrinal foundations.
Definition and Characteristics of the Pseudepigrapha
In contrast, the Pseudepigrapha go beyond didactic literature and are regarded as ‘falsely attributed writings.’ Written mostly in Hebrew or Greek, they appeared during the intertestamental period or post-apostolic era. Although ascribed to figures such as apostles Peter or James, or Old Testament personalities like Enoch, Adam, and Abraham, their true authors remain unknown. Examples include the Book of Enoch, Jubilees, Life of Adam and Eve, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Gospel of Thomas, and Apocalypse of Peter.
The Pseudepigrapha encompass a wide range of themes and genres, including mysticism, apocalyptic visions, and heretical ideas. Many merged with contemporary Gnostic or Taoist mysticism, even promoting views that reduce divinity to an inner human principle. The Gospel of Thomas emphasizes the kingdom of God as ‘within you,’ highlighting inward and subjective interpretations of the gospel. The Gospel of Judas portrays Judas as Jesus’ ‘most obedient disciple,’ fundamentally denying the redemptive meaning of the crucifixion.
Due to their theological distortions, pseudonymous authorship, and conflicts with orthodox doctrine, these texts were strongly rejected by the early church. They were excluded from the canon based on apostolic authorship, orthodoxy, and catholicity criteria. Nonetheless, the Pseudepigrapha remain valuable as historical evidence illustrating how the early church defended the boundaries of God’s word against distortions and mysticism.
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha: Their Impact and Historical Significance
Both the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha hold significant influence and historical meaning beyond being mere ‘non-canonical texts.’ The early church’s encounter with these writings initiated a lengthy process of discerning what constitutes God’s word. The canon was not established overnight; these texts helped clarify that process. Although the Pseudepigrapha were rejected earlier due to doctrinal conflicts, their existence demonstrates how the gospel’s essence could be distorted, serving as a precious witness.
How Did the Church Discern Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha?
During the canonization process, the early church emphasized three criteria:
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Apostolicity and Source of Revelation: Whether a document was genuinely written by apostles or prophets or based on authoritative traditions.
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Agreement with Orthodox Doctrine: Many Pseudepigraphal texts distorted Jesus’ divinity and humanity, the significance of the cross and resurrection, and promoted Gnostic ideas of inner divinity.
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Reception by the Church Community: Canonical books were those used broadly across Christian communities for worship, teaching, and proclamation, enjoying universal recognition.
While some Apocryphal books were read and accepted as edifying, the Pseudepigrapha were clearly deemed ‘false writings’ and sources of confusion. Church fathers warned against texts like the Gospel of Thomas, Judas, Peter, and Philip, which imitated scripture yet twisted its essence. The Gospel of Thomas, for instance, reduced salvation to inner enlightenment, negating Christ’s atonement—a heretical distortion.
How Should We Read the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Today?
The Apocrypha can still serve as historically, literarily, and spiritually instructive resources. For example, 1 and 2 Maccabees vividly record Jewish resistance and martyrdom under pagan oppression, connecting to New Testament persecution theology. Wisdom and Sirach continue the Old Testament wisdom tradition, offering ethical principles relevant to their social context. However, treating them as equal to canonical scripture or as bases for salvation or doctrine invites theological confusion.
Conversely, the Pseudepigrapha’s content and structure are highly heterodox. Simply accepting them as credible due to famous attributed authors is mistaken. Instead, they should be studied to understand why the canon was preserved and how the church discerned orthodoxy. Their mystical visions, celestial hierarchies, and human deification diverge from biblical redemption narratives.
The Authority of the Canon Today
The canon is closed and unaltered, not merely because of document completion but because God’s revelation is considered complete. The canon represents the tested foundation of faith within the community and the spiritual standard distinguishing canonical scripture from other writings. Having the canon means we possess a clear standard and unwavering confidence that the Bible is God’s word.
Studying Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha is not to prove their exclusion but to understand the theological depth of the canon and the church’s discernment. Encountering these texts can deepen our love for God’s word within the canon. Truth transcends boundaries but is fully revealed only within the canon—a truth the church has safeguarded for millennia.
Maeil Scripture Journal | Biblical Knowledge Plus
